Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part One. // Melanie Boling, Extreme Environments Neuroscientist, Harvard University.

(Melanie Boling, Harvard University, 2021)

Dopamine.

It’s our motivation to dominate our environment. 

Winning. 

Eating. 

Sex. 

Dopamine gives us access to food or partners. 

When dopamine splashes over your brain, it’s a rush of pleasure. 

Good grades. 

Praise. 

Dopamine just feels good.

The Human Brain.

(Greg Dunn Neuro Art- Brain and Neuroscience Fine Art Paintings, n.d.)

Dopamine pleasure differs from here & now pleasure, which is satisfaction. 

A dopamine surge triggered by winning leaves us wanting more. It’s not enough to win. Dopamine wants anticipation. Winning is never enough for dopamine. Pursuit and victory are the surge, and more times than not, the urge for more.  

Giving into the craving that dopamine provides does not guarantee your pleasure; simply, because wanting something versus liking something are two completely separate things. 

Dopamine will only choose one. 

The brain’s substantia niagra (Substantia Niagra, 2021).

This explains WHY human beings are willing to repeatedly put themselves into the extremes; it becomes a loop. 

The brain LOVES loops, and this particular brain loop often times goes unnoticed because it’s become comfortable. Humans gravitate toward what is easy and requires no extra effort. As they say, checking all the boxes; but, at what cost? 

When the human brain is engaged with this repeated cycle; to identify a goal in order to achieve their specific desire, one chemical in the brain takes control above all others, that is dopamine.

Becoming a master of your own homeostasis while mitigating allostatic load are the countermeasures to dopamine overload and the key to dopamine control.

(Neuroscientifically Challenged, 2015)

(Dopamine Pathways, 2013)

---

A principal mediator of the impact of stress on the brain and behavior are activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis, which results in widespread hormonal, neurochemical, and physiological alterations.

• Inflammatory stimuli on brain and behavior have consistently reported evidence that inflammatory cytokines affect the basal ganglia and dopamine neurotransmission. 

• Findings have included inflammation-associated reductions in ventral striatal responses to reward, decreased dopamine and dopamine metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid, and decreased availability of striatal dopamine (Felger & Miller, 2012).

• Dopamine response exhibits increased peripheral cytokines and other inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein or autoimmune and/or fibromyalgia response to stressors such as extreme environments (Felger & Miller, 2012).

(Toenders et al, 2021)

---

Could mastering Dopamine Control lead to neurogenesis in extreme environments as opposed to neurodegeneration? 

Can personalized countermeasures mitigate potential negative variables within extreme environments?

• Reinforcing our neural pathways over time through repeated exposure therapy would strengthen our own dopamine control, which could make space for wise-mind decisions through self-mastery. Thus, desensitizing our brain from the things which cause a negative neurophysiological response to stressful stimuli (Boling, 2021).

• These physiological emotional-regulation tools will carry over into the everyday life of the practitioner by providing a renewed self-awareness, and the ability to maintain homeostasis, even in the direst of circumstances (Boling, 2021).

Brain Neurogenesis.

(Greg Dunn Neuropsychology Art- Brain and Neuroscience Fine Art Paintings, n.d.)

---

Coming Soon:

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part Two.

---

References:

Boling, Melanie. (2021). Melanie Noelani Boling. Imagery Beyond Borders. https://imagerybeyondborders.org

Boling, Melanie (2021). Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies. The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change-research. Harvard Summer School, August 9, 2021.

Castelli, V., Cimini, A., & Ferri, C. (2020). Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: “When You Come Out of the Storm, You Won’t Be the Same Person Who Walked in.” Frontiers in Immunology, 11, 2132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.02132

Cools, R., & Roberts, A. C. (2004). The Role of Dopamine in Cognition: Insights from Neuropsychological Studies in Humans and Non-Human Primates. In S. Otani (Ed.), Prefrontal Cortex: From Synaptic Plasticity to Cognition (pp. 219–243). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-7949-4_10

Dopamine Pathways. (2013). Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University OIST. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.oist.jp/news-center/photos/dopamine-pathways

Felger, J. C., & Miller, A. H. (2012). Cytokine effects on the basal ganglia and dopamine function: The subcortical source of inflammatory malaise. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 33(3), 315—327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.09.003

Felger, J. C. (2017). The Role of Dopamine in Inflammation-Associated Depression: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 31, 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_13

Foo, C., Lozada, A., Aljadeff, J., Li, Y., Wang, J. W., Slesinger, P. A., & Kleinfeld, D. (2021). Reinforcement learning links spontaneous cortical dopamine impulses to reward. Current Biology, 31(18), 4111-4119.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.069

Frontiers | How Breath-Control Can Change Your Life: A Systematic Review on Psycho-Physiological Correlates of Slow Breathing | Human Neuroscience. (n.d.). Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353/full

Garofalo, S., & di Pellegrino, G. (2015). Individual differences in the influence of task-irrelevant Pavlovian cues on human behavior. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 163. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00163

GREG DUNN NEURO ART- Brain and Neuroscience Fine Art Paintings. (n.d.). GREG DUNN NEURO ART. Retrieved December 15, 2021, from https://www.gregadunn.com/

Keltikangas-Järvinen, L., & Salo, J. (2009). Dopamine and serotonin systems modify environmental effects on human behavior: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50(6), 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00785

Lieberman, D., & Long, M. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity--and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. Faculty Bookshelf. https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/books/249

MIND Foundation. (2019, December 22). Ayahuasca’s afterglow: Improved mindfulness & cognitive flexibility | Ashleigh Murphy-Beiner. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WADjcFNbhrg

Murphy-Beiner, A, and K Soar. “Ayahuasca’s ‘Afterglow’: Improved Mindfulness and Cognitive Flexibility in Ayahuasca Drinkers.” Psychopharmacology 237, no. 4 (April 2020): 1161–69.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-019-05445-3.

Peter, A. E., Sandeep, B. V., Rao, B. G., & Kalpana, V. L. (2021). Calming the Storm: Natural Immunosuppressants as Adjuvants to Target the Cytokine Storm in COVID-19. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 11, 2305. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.583777

Plotkin, M. J. (2021). The Amazon: What everyone needs to know. Chapter 8 seminar. Lecture notes The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change- seminar. Harvard Summer School. Delivered 3 August 2021.

Speaking of Psychology: The molecule of more—Dopamine. (n.d.). Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://www.apa.org/research/action/speaking-of-psychology/dopamine

Spiny Neurons Receive Dopamine. (n.d.). Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University OIST. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.oist.jp/news-center/photos/spiny-neurons-receive-dopamine

Substantia nigra. (2021). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Substantia_nigra&oldid=1045490165

Sudevan, S., Muto, K., Higashitani, N., Hashizume, T., Higashibata, A., Ellwood, R. A., Deane, C. S., Rahman, M., Vanapalli, S. A., Etheridge, T., Szewczyk, N. J., & Higashitani, A. (2021). Loss of Contact in Space Alters Dopamine System in C. elegans (SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3919931). Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3919931

Tang, L., Yin, Z., Hu, Y., & Mei, H. (2020). Controlling Cytokine Storm Is Vital in COVID-19. Frontiers in Immunology, 11, 3158. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.570993

Toenders, Y. J., Laskaris, L., Davey, C. G., Berk, M., Milaneschi, Y., Lamers, F., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Schmaal, L. (2021). Inflammation and depression in young people: A systematic review and proposed inflammatory pathways. Molecular Psychiatry, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01306-8

---

About the author:

Melanie began attending Harvard in 2020 to complete a Graduate Certificate in Human Behavior with a specialization in Neuropsychology. Boling’s research has examined extreme environments and how they can have a potential negative impact on humans operating in the extreme environment. During her time at Harvard, she has built a mental wellness tool called a psychological field kit. Implementing these tools will allow an individual to thrive in an extreme environment while mitigating negative variables such as abnormal human behavior which can play a role in team degradation.

Melanie Boling, Extreme ICE Environments Neuroscientist, Boling Expeditionary Research Group; and Neuropsychology Graduate Student, Harvard University.

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part Two // Melanie Boling, Harvard University.

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part Two.

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis or HPA axis is a complex system of neuroendocrine pathways and feedback loops that function to maintain physiological homeostasis.

During childhood, abnormal development of the HPA axis can result in long-term alterations in neuropeptide and neurotransmitter synthesis in the central nervous system, as well as glucocorticoid hormone synthesis in the periphery.

These ingredients together create the perfect storm to affect an individual later on in life. These changes can potentially lead to a disruption in neuroendocrine, behavioral, autonomic, and metabolic functions in adulthood and in some cases develop during childhood or alter biomarkers, which act as early warning systems, permanently.

The primary function of the HPA axis is to regulate your stress response.

(2-Minute Neuroscience: HPA Axis - YouTube, n.d.)

Activation of the HPA axis results in widespread hormonal, neurochemical and physiological alterations. Inflammatory stimuli on the brain and behavior have consistently reported evidence that inflammatory cytokines affect the brain’s Basal Ganglia (responsible for motor control, executive functions, behavior, and emotions). Dysfunction of neurotransmitters and their receptors can lead to dopamine-relevant corticostriatal reward circuitry.

Findings have included inflammation-associated reductions in ventral striatal responses to reward, decreased dopamine and dopamine metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid, and decreased availability of striatal dopamine. The ventral striatum is the striatal region most closely associated with reward.

Dopamine response exhibits increased peripheral cytokines and other inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein. There has been mounting interest regarding the role of cytokines in behavioral alterations and the development and progression of neuropsychiatric disorders. This means that inflammatory response derived from stress-response drives both brain and behavior changes, among many other types of physiological dysfunction.

Cytokines from peripheral immune cells can access the Central Nervous System (CNS) by several mechanisms including:

1) Passage through leaky regions in the blood-brain-barrier such as the circumventricular organs.

2) Activation of endothelial cells and perivascular macrophages in the cerebral vasculature to produce local inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandins, and nitric oxide.

3) Carrier-mediated transport of cytokines across the blood-brain-barrier.

4) Local activation of peripheral nerve afferents which then relay cytokine signals to relevant brain regions, including the nucleus of the solitary tract and hypothalamus.

5) Recruitment of activated immune cells such as monocytes/macrophages and T cells from the periphery to the brain, where these cells can, in turn, produce cytokines.

“Under physiologic conditions, cytokines such as Tumor Necrosis Factor or TNF-alpha and IL-1 have been shown to be involved in a number of essential brain processes such as synaptic remodeling, neurogenesis, and long-term potentiation. However, in excess, inflammatory cytokines can act in the brain to affect monoamine neurotransmitter systems and behavior, and recent evidence indicates that dopamine function in the basal ganglia may be a primary target in this regard. The basal ganglia are key subcortical structures that regulate motivation and motor activity, and dopamine plays an essential modulatory role in basal ganglia function. The effect of inflammatory cytokines on basal ganglia dopamine may be especially relevant to depression and fatigue as well as psychomotor disturbances and the development of neurodegenerative disorders” (Felger & Miller, 2012).

Chronic inflammation and exposure to inflammatory cytokines lead to changes in the basal ganglia and dopamine function which result in very specific behaviors to include anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure), fatigue, and psychomotor slowing. The reduction of neural responses to hedonic reward (pleasure), decreased dopamine metabolites in CSF or cerebrospinal fluid and increased presynaptic dopamine uptake and decreased turnover have been reported.

Peripheral inflammatory cytokines or activated immune cells can dramatically influence local inflammatory networks and drive neuroinflammation (inflammatory response of brain and spinal cord) by activating local production of cytokines and inflammatory signaling pathways.

Inflammatory cytokines and their receptors are expressed in the brain at low levels during non-pathological states and are found to be fairly ubiquitous, yet this cytokine network in the brain can be rapidly mobilized in response to inflammatory stimuli. Examples of inflammatory stimuli could be what you consume; your environment; a run-in with the wrong person; a memory. These are all examples of inflammatory stimulus which would trigger an inflammatory response leading to an uptick in inflammatory cytokines released into the brain and into the body, more specifically the central nervous system.

Cytokines in the brain are produced primarily by microglia, but can also be produced by astrocytes and to some extent by neurons and oligodendrocytes. Endothelial cells and perivascular macrophages respond to circulating cytokines to induce expression of prostaglandin-producing enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin E synthase (PGES).

Following acute inflammatory stimulus, increased central nervous system inflammation signal a protection response to the brain, and acute changes in neurotransmitter metabolism, including increases in monoamines such as serotonin and norepinephrine in the hypothalamus, can contribute to the induction of fever, activation of the HPA axis, and transition from an anabolic to a catabolic state.

Changes in monoamine metabolism promote behavioral alterations including reduced locomotor activity and anhedonia that allow for shunting of energy and metabolic resources to combat infection and/or facilitate wound healing. Cytokine signals from the periphery alert the central nervous system of immune insult in order to prepare and protect an organism during times of sickness and injury.

Under conditions of chronic inflammation such as during chronic medical illnesses, extreme stress, or operating in an extreme environment, central nervous system inflammation can exert profound and protracted changes in neurotransmitter systems, neurotrophic factors, and neuronal integrity that can have negative and even detrimental outcomes on behavior.

Dopamine Control provided by the directives of psychological field kits intervene in the inflammatory response, which results in the return to homeostasis. Personalized psychological field kits reduce HPA axis activation or mitigate dysfunction by allowing the body to return to baseline even at times of extreme stress, for example during high-stress mission operations or crises within an extreme environment.

“Dopamine” by Italian Artisi, Maria Elena Buemi (Dopamine (Molecola Della Creatività) Painting by Maria Elena Buemi | Saatchi Art, n.d.).

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part Three, coming soon.

---

References

Bamford, N. S., Wightman, R. M., & Sulzer, D. (2018). Dopamine’s effects on corticostriatal synapses during reward-based behaviors. Neuron, 97(3), 494–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.01.006

Cools, R., & Roberts, A. C. (2004). The Role of Dopamine in Cognition: Insights from Neuropsychological Studies in Humans and Non-Human Primates. In S. Otani (Ed.), Prefrontal Cortex: From Synaptic Plasticity to Cognition (pp. 219–243). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-7949-4_10

Chromium May Help Treat Depression Naturally and Curb Carb Cravings. (2020, May 4). University Health News. https://universityhealthnews.com/daily/depression/beating-depression-naturally-while-simultaneously-curing-your-carb-cravings-yes/

Dopamine (molecola della Creatività) Painting by maria elena buemi | Saatchi Art. (n.d.). Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://www.saatchiart.com/art/Painting-Dopamine-molecola-della-Creativit/683742/3362178/view

Felger, J. C., & Miller, A. H. (2012). Cytokine effects on the basal ganglia and dopamine function: The subcortical source of inflammatory malaise. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 33(3), 315—327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.09.003

Felger, J. C. (2017). The Role of Dopamine in Inflammation-Associated Depression: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 31, 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_13

Foo, C., Lozada, A., Aljadeff, J., Li, Y., Wang, J. W., Slesinger, P. A., & Kleinfeld, D. (2021). Reinforcement learning links spontaneous cortical dopamine impulses to reward. Current Biology, 31(18), 4111-4119.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.069

Keltikangas-Järvinen, L., & Salo, J. (2009). Dopamine and serotonin systems modify environmental effects on human behavior: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50(6), 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00785

Lieberman, D., & Long, M. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity--and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. Faculty Bookshelf. https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/books/249

Oct. 20th, P. M. | published & 2021. (n.d.). Rise and Grind. Reporter. Retrieved October 27, 2021, from https://reporter.rit.edu/views/rise-and-grin

Nordgreen, J., Edwards, S. A., Boyle, L. A., Bolhuis, J. E., Veit, C., Sayyari, A., Marin, D. E., Dimitrov, I., Janczak, A. M., & Valros, A. (2020). A Proposed Role for Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in Damaging Behavior in Pigs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 646. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00646

Russo, S. J., Murrough, J. W., Han, M.-H., Charney, D. S., & Nestler, E. J. (2012). Neurobiology of resilience. Nature Neuroscience, 15(11), 1475–1484. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3234

Sudevan, S., Muto, K., Higashitani, N., Hashizume, T., Higashibata, A., Ellwood, R. A., Deane, C. S., Rahman, M., Vanapalli, S. A., Etheridge, T., Szewczyk, N. J., & Higashitani, A. (2021). Loss of Contact in Space Alters Dopamine System in C. elegans (SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3919931). Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3919931

2-Minute Neuroscience: HPA Axis—YouTube. (n.d.). Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAeBKRaNri0

---

About the author:

Melanie began attending Harvard in 2020 to complete a Graduate Certificate in Human Behavior with a specialization in Neuropsychology. Boling’s research has examined extreme environments and how they can have a potential negative impact on humans operating in the extreme environment. During her time at Harvard, she has built a mental wellness tool called a psychological field kit. Implementing these tools will allow an individual to thrive in an extreme environment while mitigating negative variables such as abnormal human behavior which can play a role in team degradation.

Small Shamanic Ceremonies stay true to the culture and provide space for healing U.S. Military Veterans. // Melanie Boling, Harvard University.

Small Shamanic Ceremonies stay true to the culture and provide space for healing. 

Melanie Boling, Extreme (ICE) Environments Behavioural Ecologist and Graduate Student of Neuropsychology, Harvard University in the Peruvian Andes (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021).

The human condition beyond the understanding of the United States Healthcare System and even academia seems to be the path that some United States Military Veterans are on in order to find relief for themselves (Plotkin, 2021).

If the ‘psychedelic renaissance’ continues to proliferate in the United States at the pace it is currently at, this could mean that more avenues of care will be readily available to civilians and veterans, alike.

However, until the United States Government deems these plant medicines legal, people will continue to seek refuge outside of the bubble of the United States or find other ways to be treated by plant medicine that strays from the more traditional methods used by shamans and other facilitators/practitioners of the Amazon Rainforest healing. 

Shamanic Healing is said to “free the soul from the body in order to communicate with the spirit realm” (Plotkin, 2021). These “consultations” with the spirit world through traditional plant medicine healing techniques such as consuming the ayahuasca brew that stimulates the brain and body are often accompanied by a magic song; or in the Shipibo culture “The Icaros”. It is said that consuming ayahuasca makes you dizzy, and the dizziness brings about the magic song. 

“The most important tool used by shamans is the icaro. These traditional songs sung or whistled by shamans before, during, and after an ayahuasca ceremony not only comprise the setting of the experience, they also positively influence the internal landscape of a person’s psyche. While we’re still trying to understand icaros in therapeutic terms, there’s no doubt that these songs play a vital role in the healing aspects of ayahuasca” (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021). 

My scientific theory is that the icaro magic song sung by the shaman directly penetrates the vagus nerve which is the main component of the Human Parasympathetic Nervous System; one of the direct connections that allow your brain and your gut to communicate with one another. The vagus nerve controls mood; immune response; digestion; and even your heart rate. All bodily functions are directly affected by the consumption of ayahuasca and throughout the duration of the ayahuasca ceremony. During the singing of the icaro the vagus nerve is stimulated, creating a more euphoric experience for some, and for others an uptick in purging for the ayahuasca consumer; and in some cases bystanders who only are present for the ceremony itself. This is the power of ayahuasca. 

Traditional Ayahuasca Healing Centers around the world are springing up from India to Costa Rica promising the patients a week or more of services that often come with a hefty price tag.

Plant medicine healing centers or clinics allow shamans; tribal members; and facilitators to continue practicing the traditions of their culture and making a living while doing so (Plotkin, 2021). Thus, preserving and safeguarding a living history allows for more generations to learn the way of the rainforest through plant medicine.

In Sacred Valley of the Andes Mountains just outside of Cusco, Peru, Ayahuasca Healing Centers allow tribes to continue practicing the traditions of their culture and making a living while doing so (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021).

These healing centers lower the dependent variable of a tribe from going extinct; or moving further away from traditional ways that are not successfully being passed onto the younger generations (Plotkin, 2021). 

With certain types of emotional trauma, like Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder or C-PTSD and Military Sexual Trauma or MST, small shamanic ceremonies would be the venue or “set and setting” of choice for those suffering from these types of mental illness. Largely, due to the extrinsic factors that play a centralized role in long-term post-traumatic stress or sexual abuse, assault, or trauma.

The idea of holding a small shamanic ceremony would also allow for facilitators and shamans alike to stay true to their culture while holding space to guide these survivors into a journey within themselves.

Nobody’s healing is more important than the other, and keeping a circle small would promote community, while also providing the participants to be on the same level with one another.

With regard to United States Military Veterans, offering the same level of understanding through these profound psychedelic experiences could promote a sense of unity and purpose. Being a part of something bigger than oneself is a core value instilled in those who have served their country in the military forces.

Larger groups at healing retreats can often breed chaos as well as trauma-bonding, which would potentially push certain at-risk veterans to get lost in the shuffle. In turn, this would be repeating the same patterns that of the Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, ultimately potentially providing a short-term band-aid that would later fail the veteran with long-term relief.

Would you like to know more?

Be sure to read back on all of our articles about Entheogen Therapy or Psychedelic Plant Medicine derived from the scientific paper, “Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies”.

---

References:

Boling, Melanie (2021). Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies. The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change-research. Harvard Summer School, August 9, 2021.

Plotkin, M. J. (2021). The Amazon: What everyone needs to know. Chapter 8 seminar. Lecture notes The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change- seminar. Harvard Summer School. Delivered 3 August 2021.

---

About the author.

Melanie began attending Harvard in 2020 to complete a Graduate Certificate in Human Behavior with a specialization in Neuropsychology. Boling’s research has examined extreme environments and how they can have a potential negative impact on humans operating in the extreme environment. During her time at Harvard, she has built a mental wellness tool called a psychological field kit. Implementing these tools will allow an individual to thrive in an extreme environment while mitigating negative variables such as abnormal human behavior which can play a role in team degradation.

Melanie Boling, Extreme (ICE) Environments Behavioural Ecologist, Peer Wild; and Graduate Student of Neuropsychology, Harvard University.

Effectiveness of Psychedelic Plant Medicine among United States Military Veterans: Part Three. // Melanie Boling, Harvard University.

Effectiveness of Hallucinogenic lianas of the Amazon Rainforest among United States Military Veterans. 

The saying goes, “the toad always knows” or “toad you so” which are modern-cultural references to the Bufo alvarius, also known as the Sonoran Desert toad. Its most notable characteristic is the toxic, milky-white venom it secretes to poison predators. The substance derived from that venom is 5-MeO-DMT, an extremely potent psychedelic that is up to six times stronger than its better-known relative DMT. After just a single-use, “this psychedelic medicine lifts anxiety, depression, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and provides an overall sustained enhancement of satisfaction with life” (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021).

United States Military Veterans are taking their mental health into their own hands and by doing so are stepping away from pharmaceutical interventions, and leaning in toward plant medicine solutions (“The Potential for Psychedelic Treatment for Veterans,” 2021). 

Military Veterans seeking the potential relief through entheogen therapy or that specifically ayahuasca could provide for their Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder or PTSD, outweighed the risks. Plant medicines are a way of  “pulling the rug out from under you and beating the rug until it’s clean” (Stroder, 2014), a commonality among troops on how to handle their affairs in life. 

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Addiction are two mental illnesses that some veterans returning home are plagued with and preliminary research has shown that ayahuasca consumption can relieve some of the symptoms that accompany those illnesses and in some cases cure them.

Entheogen Therapy holds a space for many veterans trapped in their trauma and plant medicine has provided a space for releasing the trauma during their psychedelic experience (Veterans Are Turning to Ayahuasca for PTSD Relief, n.d.).

Each experience is different with the individual; but, the overall message is that relief is sought and found through ayahuasca therapy. Drinking ayahuasca brought veterans the healing they search for by providing love and acceptance of themselves after suffering through atrocities such as psychological abuse and sexual assault while serving in the military (Stroder, 2014). 

Different types of research being conducted on veterans involving Psilocybin Mushrooms and MDMA, and a groundbreaking study on 5-MeO-DMT that shows positive results for those suffering from psychological and cognitive impairment (“The Potential for Psychedelic Treatment for Veterans,” 2021).

San Pedro Cactus or Echinopsis pachanoi is a fast growing cactus native to the Andes Mountains. The processing of the plant medicine is a sacred traditional ceremony because one puts their own intentions into the medicine in an effort to heal the consumer (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021).

The San Pedro Cactus or “Huachuma” is cut and boiled down to a brew with the consistency of agave nectar. Echinopsis pachanoi contains mescaline and is currently being used for treatment-resistant mental illnesses like Depression, PTSD, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder or OCD (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021).

The sacred cactus tea is best consumed in a safe and trusted environment where one could express their creative-self for up to 12 hours. It’s been said that “The Incas built Machu Picchu while consuming Huachuma” (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021).

Researchers are just beginning to tap into the therapeutic potential for the treatment of depression and anxiety through the application of ayahuasca. Despite not knowing the exact “mechanisms'” (Murphy-Beiner & Soar, 2020) that make this plant medicine such a beneficial treatment option; research has shown that other psychedelics have offered a window of opportunity for additional psychotherapeutic tools to be introduced to help support the human subject after the acute effects had worn off (Murphy-Beiner & Soar, 2020). 

One study utilized mindfulness and cognitive “mental” flexibility, which both approaches are defined as shifts of perspective in their own right. Both have been said to improve the practitioner’s quality of life or state of being.

Mindfulness increases the connectivity between the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) responsible for the emotional and cognitive center of the brain and the Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PSC) which is the hub of the Default Mode Network (DMN) where you create a sense of “self” (Murphy-Beiner & Soar, 2020). 

Ayahuasca inhibits various parts of the brain associated with cognitive flexibility. It produces structural changes within the brain that are responsible for activity within 24 hours of ayahuasca consumption which leads to positive increases in cognitive flexibility.

Results show that mindfulness is beneficial and lasting to the first-time or experienced ayahuasca user. Ayahuasca’s use allows the loosening of one’s cognitive grip which helps alleviate the feeling of being stuck and the depression associated with similar behavioral patterns (Murphy-Beiner & Soar, 2020). 

Sexual assault survivors in the military suffer from the fear of victim-blaming and feelings of shame and guilt that often continue to impact every aspect of the survivor’s life beyond their time in the military.

Relationships of any kind are impaired and ultimately the survivor has no room for trust with anyone.

More and more United States Military Veterans are being diagnosed with PTSD due to Military Sexual Trauma or MST, which could potentially deem sexual assault survivors as disabled without the ability to work again for the remainder of their life. 

Entheogen therapy or Psychedelic Plant Medicine combined with mindfulness and cognitive flexibility is a potential avenue for relief for these particular individuals “seeking the light” (Veterans Are Turning to Ayahuasca for PTSD Relief, n.d.).

Facilitating this through small group ceremonies is a way of allowing the survivor to feel safe, and provide space for trust within themself and those around them, which can often be lost in a large group of individuals.

This particular recipe could be the key to improving the overall quality of life for the survivor and provide a path to finding their way back to themselves, despite the atrocities that were forced to suffer at the hands of others.

Trust and safety are the key components to the overall success of Psychedelic Plant Medicine.

Depiction of your mind on Ayahuasca. (Artist unknown, 2020)

Would you like to know more?

Be sure to read back on all of our articles about Entheogen Therapy or Psychedelic Plant Medicine derived from the scientific paper, “Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies”.

---

References:

Boling, Melanie (2021). Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies. The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change-research. Harvard Summer School, August 9, 2021.

HAVN Life. “The Potential for Psychedelic Treatment for Veterans,” March 11, 2021.   

https://havnlife.com/the-potential-for-psychedelic-treatment-for-veterans/.

Murphy-Beiner, A, and K Soar. “Ayahuasca’s ‘Afterglow’: Improved Mindfulness and Cognitive Flexibility in Ayahuasca Drinkers.” Psychopharmacology 237, no. 4 (April 2020): 1161–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-019-05445-3.

Stroder, Richard. “Veteran: My Search for a PTSD Cure Led Me to the Amazon.” CNN, October 23, 2014. https://www.cnn.com/2014/10/23/opinion/veteran-ptsd-ayahuasca/index.html.

“Veterans Are Turning to Ayahuasca for PTSD Relief.” Accessed July 15, 2021. https://www.vice.com/en/article/a3kaye/veterans-are-turning-to-ayahuasca-for-ptsd-relief.

---

About the author:

Melanie began attending Harvard in 2020 to complete a Graduate Certificate in Human Behavior with a specialization in Neuropsychology. Boling’s research has examined extreme environments and how they can have a potential negative impact on humans operating in the extreme environment. During her time at Harvard, she has built a mental wellness tool called a psychological field kit. Implementing these tools will allow an individual to thrive in an extreme environment while mitigating negative variables such as abnormal human behavior which can play a role in team degradation.

Melanie Boling, Extreme (ICE) Environments Behavioural Ecologist, Peer Wild; and Graduate Student of Neuropsychology, Harvard University.