Sleep in Extreme Environments: Part Two // Melanie Boling , Harvard University

Sleep in Extreme Environments: Part Two.

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Sleeping in Extreme Environments

U.S. Marines of the 15th Expeditionary Unit (MEU) Fox Company "Raiders" sleep-wearing respirators during a gas attack alert in an undisclosed location in the Iraqi desert on March 28, 2003 (Ingersoll, n.d.) (Reuters).

How NASA astronauts sleep aboard the International Space Station that orbits the Earth (Callini, 2015).

Deep within the Leuser Ecosystem on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia (Melanie Boling, Imagery Beyond Borders, 2017).

Sleeping and Thermoregulation in Extreme Environments

The behavior of humans accounts for about 90% of their thermoregulation. “Under ambient conditions, the core body temperature of 37 degrees celsius is maintained by the permanent metabolic active internal organs such as the brain, heart, liver, and gastrointestinal tract through a fine-tuned thermoregulatory system that mainly adjusts peripheral perfusions of the skin and evaporation by the sweat glands to the thermal needs of the body.” (Gunga, 2015).

Human’s core body temperature begins to decrease a few hours before sleep onset. The thermal environment is one of the most important factors that can affect human sleep. Effects of heat or cold exposure are increased wakefulness and decreased rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and slow wave (SWS) sleep. Heat exposure increases wakefulness and decreases SWS and REM sleep. Humid heat exposure further increases thermal load during sleep and affects sleep stages and thermoregulation (Okamoto-Mizuno & Mizuno, 2012). “Heat loss in hot and warm environments and under strenuous exercise, the organism depends on the evaporative pathway” (Gunga, 2015).

“Cold exposure affects cardiac autonomic response during sleep without affecting sleep stages and subjective sensations. The impact of cold exposure may be greater than that of heat exposure” (Okamoto-Mizuno & Mizuno, 2012). “In cold environments, heat loss must be reduced in order to prevent hypothermia. Thus, the body shell has to be enlarged via vasoconstriction, which allows better insulation of the core (which protects vital organs). Insulating layers prevent heat loss” (Gunga, 2015).

During non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, the brain, and core temperature decrease with magnitudes irrespective of the ambient temperature (Okamoto-Mizuno & Mizuno, 2012). NREM sleep is a state with a low level of energy metabolism, cardiovascular, and thermoregulatory functions to conserve energy while feeding is reduced. Central autonomic nervous system activity regulating cardiovascular function and breathing as well as endocrine function supports this need during NREM sleep. Energy conservation and cooling of the body and brain are thought to be major functions of the tight interconnection of sleep and thermoregulation.

“Thermoregulation is a mechanism by which mammals maintain body temperature with tightly controlled self-regulation independent of external temperatures. Internal temperature regulation is a type of homeostasis and a means of preserving a stable internal temperature in order to survive” (Osilla et al., 2022). The human core body temperature consists of cranial, thoracic, and abdominal cavities. Together, their median core body temperature is about 37 degrees Celsius. The temperature of human extremities is considerably lower and ranges from about 28-36 degrees celsius (Gunga, 2015). Core body temperature is not consistent, and fluctuates throughout the day via circadian rhythm.

Our internal body temperature is regulated by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus checks our current temperature and compares it with the normal temperature of about 37°C. “If our temperature is too low, the hypothalamus makes sure that the body generates and maintains heat. If our current body temperature is too high, heat is given off or sweat is produced to cool the skin.” (Gunga, 2015). Humans require a constant high core body temperature between 36.4- 37.4 degrees celsius.

Humans are endothermic organisms, (less dependent on external environmental temperatures) (Gunga, 2015). “Endothermic Organisms have much higher basal energy consumption - this keeps the core body temperature constant throughout a wide range of different external environmental temperatures.” (Gunga, 2015). Variations of core body temperature are only tolerated in a very small range.

(Thermoregulation in Humans - Body Temperature Regulation at Night, n.d.)

(Thermoregulation in Humans - Body Temperature Regulation at Night, n.d.)

The Brain and Sleep in Extreme Environments

The Preoptic Area of the Hypothalamus (POAH) serves as a critical brain region that influences thermoregulation, sleep, and energy homeostasis. The POAH is also involved in regulating parenting, and sexual behaviors, each of which is controlled by dedicated circuits (Frontiers | Role of the Preoptic Area in Sleep and Thermoregulation, 2021).

The control circuit consists of the motor system, brown adipose tissue, vasomotor activity, sweat secretion, and pilomotor activity. “A critical role of the POAH in integrating temperature information and triggering behavioral and autonomic responses through their central and peripheral downstream targets to adjust the body temperature” (Frontiers | Role of the Preoptic Area in Sleep and Thermoregulation, 2021). The POAH is where body shell and body core temperatures are compared to set-point values.

A Set-Point Value is set by means of temperature reference signals placed within the brain and body’s control circuit (Gunga, 2015). A decrease of the core body temperature below the setpoint value set by the hypothalamus leads to vasoconstriction of the skin and shell vessels (negative feedback), whereby the heat release via the body shell is reduced, piloerection of the hair (goosebumps), enlarges the insulating boundary layer above the skin and thus decreases the heat loss; and increased heat production by shivering. When the actual value, on the other hand, lies above the setpoint value, all those mechanisms that might evoke a further increase in the body temperature (motor system) are extenuated (negative feedback), and the mechanisms of heat loss are strengthened (vasodilatation in the body shell, increase of sweat secretion).

In the Hypothalamus, special neurons produce signals independent of the temperature. “When temperature and set-point value deviate from each other, various elements within the control circuit are changed by the autonomic nervous system to affect vegetative nerve fibers within the control circuit of positive and/or negative feedback” (Gunga, 2015). Different defense mechanisms for the maintenance of the core body temperature are reflexes and cannot be influenced entirely through autonomic control (Gunga, 2015).

Sensations of thermal comfort or discomfort are generated within the sensory cortex. Stimulating the internal and external cold and heat receptors via the tractus spinothalamicus and the unspecific medial thalamic regions (Gunga, 2015). “With distinct thermal discomfort, not only a stimulation of the autonomic countermeasures is initiated, but also, mediated via the cortex, changes in behavior, which leads to the selection of warmer clothing or taking shelter in a heated room in a cold environment” (Gunga, 2015).

(Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis | Simply Psychology, n.d.)

“The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis is the major neuroendocrine axis that regulates homeostasis in mammals” (Gjerstad et al., 2018). “Glucocorticoid hormones (GH) are synthesized and secreted from the adrenal gland in response to stress. GH has a wide range of effects as they are involved in the regulation of metabolic processes, immune system, reproduction, behavior and cognitive functions” (Gjerstad et al., 2018). “Under basal conditions, glucocorticoids are released rhythmically with both a circadian and an ultradian pattern. These rhythms are important not only for the normal function of glucocorticoid target organs but also for the HPA axis responses to stress” (Gjerstad et al., 2018). When stress activates the HPA axis the resultant increase in cortisol in order to prepare the body to cope with and recover from the stressor. This is also known as resilience (Gjerstad et al., 2018).

A principal mediator of the impact of stress on the brain and behavior is the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which results in widespread hormonal, neurochemical, and physiological alterations (Russo et al., 2012). Inflammatory stimuli in the brain and behavior have consistently reported evidence that inflammatory cytokines affect the basal ganglia and dopamine neurotransmission (Felger, 2017). Examination of the mechanisms by which cytokines alter the basal ganglia and dopamine function will provide insights into the mitigation of cytokine-induced behavioral changes and malaise due to an inflammatory response from HPA axis dysfunction.” (Felger, 2017). Findings have included inflammation-associated reductions in ventral striatal responses to reward, decreased dopamine and dopamine metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid, and decreased availability of striatal dopamine (Felger & Miller, 2012).

(Toenders et al., 2021)

Dopamine response exhibits increased peripheral cytokines and other inflammatory markers, such as c-reactive proteins or autoimmune and/or fibromyalgia response to stressors such as exposure to extreme environments (Felger & Miller, 2012). Dysfunction of neurotransmitters and their receptors can lead to dopamine-relevant corticostriatal reward circuitry. Inflammatory stimuli on the brain and behavior have consistently reported evidence that inflammatory cytokines affect the basal ganglia and dopamine (Boling, 2021).

Neuroadaptations in the brain and their neuroendocrine output contribute to resilience. The ability to avoid behavioral changes in response to chronic stress is mediated not only by the absence of key molecular abnormalities that occur in susceptible animals/humans to impair their coping ability but also by the presence of distinct molecular adaptations that occur specifically in resilient individuals to help promote normal behavioral function (Russo et al., 2012).

Sleep plays a vital role in this regulation.

A U.S. soldier of 2-12 Infantry 4BCT-4ID Task Force Mountain Warrior takes a break during a night mission near Honaker Miracle camp at the Pesh valley of Kunar Province August 12, 2009 (Ingersoll, n.d.) (Reuters).

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Sleep in Extreme Environments: Part Three, Countermeasures and Mitigation Techniques, Coming Soon.

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References

Boling, Melanie. (2022). Melanie Noelani Boling. Imagery Beyond Borders. https://imagerybeyondborders.org

Boling, Melanie (2021). Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies. The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change-research. Harvard Summer School, August 9, 2021

Callini, C. (2015, February 24). Sleeping in Space [Text]. NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/sleeping-in-space

Felger, J. C., & Miller, A. H. (2012). Cytokine effects on the basal ganglia and dopamine function: The subcortical source of inflammatory malaise. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 33(3), 315—327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.09.003

Felger, J. C. (2017). The Role of Dopamine in Inflammation-Associated Depression: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 31, 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_13

Frontiers | Role of the Preoptic Area in Sleep and Thermoregulation. (n.d.). Retrieved August 2, 2022, from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2021.664781/full

Gunga, H.-C. (2015). Chapter 5—Desert and Tropical Environment. In H.-C. Gunga (Ed.), Human Physiology in Extreme Environments (pp. 161–213). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386947-0.00005-8

Gjerstad JK, Lightman SL, Spiga F. Role of glucocorticoid negative feedback in the regulation of HPA axis pulsatility. Stress. 2018 Sep;21(5):403-416. doi: 10.1080/10253890.2018.1470238. Epub 2018 May 15. PMID: 29764284; PMCID: PMC6220752.

Ingersoll, G. (n.d.). 23 Examples Of Sleep In A Combat Zone. Business Insider. Retrieved August 12, 2022, from https://www.businessinsider.com/heres-23-examples-of-sleep-in-combat-2013-3

Okamoto-Mizuno, K., & Mizuno, K. (2012). Effects of thermal environment on sleep and circadian rhythm. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 31(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1880-6805-31-14

Osilla, E. V., Marsidi, J. L., & Sharma, S. (2022). Physiology, Temperature Regulation. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507838/

Russo, S. J., Murrough, J. W., Han, M., Charney, D. S., & Nestler, E. J. (2012). Neurobiology of Resilience. Nature Neuroscience, 15(11), 1475–1484. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3234

Thermoregulation in Humans—Body Temperature Regulation at Night. (n.d.). Retrieved August 2, 2022, from https://www.sleepadvisor.org/thermoregulation/

Toenders, Y. J., Laskaris, L., Davey, C. G., Berk, M., Milaneschi, Y., Lamers, F., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Schmaal, L. (2021). Inflammation and depression in young people: A systematic review and proposed inflammatory pathways. Molecular Psychiatry, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01306-8

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About the author:

Melanie began attending Harvard in 2020 to complete a Graduate Certificate in Human Behavior with a specialization in Neuropsychology. Boling’s research has examined extreme environments and how they can have a potential negative impact on humans operating in the extreme environment. During her time at Harvard, she has built a mental wellness tool called a psychological field kit. Implementing these tools will allow an individual to thrive in an extreme environment while mitigating negative variables such as abnormal human behavior which can play a role in team degradation.

Melanie Boling, Extreme Environments Neuroscientist, Boling Expeditionary Research; Documentary Photojournalist, Imagery Beyond Borders; and U.S. Air Force OEF and OIF Veteran.

Melanie Boling is a Graduate Student of Neuropsychology and Journalism at Harvard University. She is the Founder and CEO of International NGOs Imagery Beyond Borders and Peer Wild. Boling recently opened her Behavioral Neuroscience Field Research and Consulting Business, Boling Expeditionary Research.

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part Two // Melanie Boling, Harvard University.

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part Two.

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis or HPA axis is a complex system of neuroendocrine pathways and feedback loops that function to maintain physiological homeostasis.

During childhood, abnormal development of the HPA axis can result in long-term alterations in neuropeptide and neurotransmitter synthesis in the central nervous system, as well as glucocorticoid hormone synthesis in the periphery.

These ingredients together create the perfect storm to affect an individual later on in life. These changes can potentially lead to a disruption in neuroendocrine, behavioral, autonomic, and metabolic functions in adulthood and in some cases develop during childhood or alter biomarkers, which act as early warning systems, permanently.

The primary function of the HPA axis is to regulate your stress response.

(2-Minute Neuroscience: HPA Axis - YouTube, n.d.)

Activation of the HPA axis results in widespread hormonal, neurochemical and physiological alterations. Inflammatory stimuli on the brain and behavior have consistently reported evidence that inflammatory cytokines affect the brain’s Basal Ganglia (responsible for motor control, executive functions, behavior, and emotions). Dysfunction of neurotransmitters and their receptors can lead to dopamine-relevant corticostriatal reward circuitry.

Findings have included inflammation-associated reductions in ventral striatal responses to reward, decreased dopamine and dopamine metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid, and decreased availability of striatal dopamine. The ventral striatum is the striatal region most closely associated with reward.

Dopamine response exhibits increased peripheral cytokines and other inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein. There has been mounting interest regarding the role of cytokines in behavioral alterations and the development and progression of neuropsychiatric disorders. This means that inflammatory response derived from stress-response drives both brain and behavior changes, among many other types of physiological dysfunction.

Cytokines from peripheral immune cells can access the Central Nervous System (CNS) by several mechanisms including:

1) Passage through leaky regions in the blood-brain-barrier such as the circumventricular organs.

2) Activation of endothelial cells and perivascular macrophages in the cerebral vasculature to produce local inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandins, and nitric oxide.

3) Carrier-mediated transport of cytokines across the blood-brain-barrier.

4) Local activation of peripheral nerve afferents which then relay cytokine signals to relevant brain regions, including the nucleus of the solitary tract and hypothalamus.

5) Recruitment of activated immune cells such as monocytes/macrophages and T cells from the periphery to the brain, where these cells can, in turn, produce cytokines.

“Under physiologic conditions, cytokines such as Tumor Necrosis Factor or TNF-alpha and IL-1 have been shown to be involved in a number of essential brain processes such as synaptic remodeling, neurogenesis, and long-term potentiation. However, in excess, inflammatory cytokines can act in the brain to affect monoamine neurotransmitter systems and behavior, and recent evidence indicates that dopamine function in the basal ganglia may be a primary target in this regard. The basal ganglia are key subcortical structures that regulate motivation and motor activity, and dopamine plays an essential modulatory role in basal ganglia function. The effect of inflammatory cytokines on basal ganglia dopamine may be especially relevant to depression and fatigue as well as psychomotor disturbances and the development of neurodegenerative disorders” (Felger & Miller, 2012).

Chronic inflammation and exposure to inflammatory cytokines lead to changes in the basal ganglia and dopamine function which result in very specific behaviors to include anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure), fatigue, and psychomotor slowing. The reduction of neural responses to hedonic reward (pleasure), decreased dopamine metabolites in CSF or cerebrospinal fluid and increased presynaptic dopamine uptake and decreased turnover have been reported.

Peripheral inflammatory cytokines or activated immune cells can dramatically influence local inflammatory networks and drive neuroinflammation (inflammatory response of brain and spinal cord) by activating local production of cytokines and inflammatory signaling pathways.

Inflammatory cytokines and their receptors are expressed in the brain at low levels during non-pathological states and are found to be fairly ubiquitous, yet this cytokine network in the brain can be rapidly mobilized in response to inflammatory stimuli. Examples of inflammatory stimuli could be what you consume; your environment; a run-in with the wrong person; a memory. These are all examples of inflammatory stimulus which would trigger an inflammatory response leading to an uptick in inflammatory cytokines released into the brain and into the body, more specifically the central nervous system.

Cytokines in the brain are produced primarily by microglia, but can also be produced by astrocytes and to some extent by neurons and oligodendrocytes. Endothelial cells and perivascular macrophages respond to circulating cytokines to induce expression of prostaglandin-producing enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin E synthase (PGES).

Following acute inflammatory stimulus, increased central nervous system inflammation signal a protection response to the brain, and acute changes in neurotransmitter metabolism, including increases in monoamines such as serotonin and norepinephrine in the hypothalamus, can contribute to the induction of fever, activation of the HPA axis, and transition from an anabolic to a catabolic state.

Changes in monoamine metabolism promote behavioral alterations including reduced locomotor activity and anhedonia that allow for shunting of energy and metabolic resources to combat infection and/or facilitate wound healing. Cytokine signals from the periphery alert the central nervous system of immune insult in order to prepare and protect an organism during times of sickness and injury.

Under conditions of chronic inflammation such as during chronic medical illnesses, extreme stress, or operating in an extreme environment, central nervous system inflammation can exert profound and protracted changes in neurotransmitter systems, neurotrophic factors, and neuronal integrity that can have negative and even detrimental outcomes on behavior.

Dopamine Control provided by the directives of psychological field kits intervene in the inflammatory response, which results in the return to homeostasis. Personalized psychological field kits reduce HPA axis activation or mitigate dysfunction by allowing the body to return to baseline even at times of extreme stress, for example during high-stress mission operations or crises within an extreme environment.

“Dopamine” by Italian Artisi, Maria Elena Buemi (Dopamine (Molecola Della Creatività) Painting by Maria Elena Buemi | Saatchi Art, n.d.).

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part Three, coming soon.

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References

Bamford, N. S., Wightman, R. M., & Sulzer, D. (2018). Dopamine’s effects on corticostriatal synapses during reward-based behaviors. Neuron, 97(3), 494–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.01.006

Cools, R., & Roberts, A. C. (2004). The Role of Dopamine in Cognition: Insights from Neuropsychological Studies in Humans and Non-Human Primates. In S. Otani (Ed.), Prefrontal Cortex: From Synaptic Plasticity to Cognition (pp. 219–243). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-7949-4_10

Chromium May Help Treat Depression Naturally and Curb Carb Cravings. (2020, May 4). University Health News. https://universityhealthnews.com/daily/depression/beating-depression-naturally-while-simultaneously-curing-your-carb-cravings-yes/

Dopamine (molecola della Creatività) Painting by maria elena buemi | Saatchi Art. (n.d.). Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://www.saatchiart.com/art/Painting-Dopamine-molecola-della-Creativit/683742/3362178/view

Felger, J. C., & Miller, A. H. (2012). Cytokine effects on the basal ganglia and dopamine function: The subcortical source of inflammatory malaise. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 33(3), 315—327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.09.003

Felger, J. C. (2017). The Role of Dopamine in Inflammation-Associated Depression: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 31, 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_13

Foo, C., Lozada, A., Aljadeff, J., Li, Y., Wang, J. W., Slesinger, P. A., & Kleinfeld, D. (2021). Reinforcement learning links spontaneous cortical dopamine impulses to reward. Current Biology, 31(18), 4111-4119.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.069

Keltikangas-Järvinen, L., & Salo, J. (2009). Dopamine and serotonin systems modify environmental effects on human behavior: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50(6), 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00785

Lieberman, D., & Long, M. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity--and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. Faculty Bookshelf. https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/books/249

Oct. 20th, P. M. | published & 2021. (n.d.). Rise and Grind. Reporter. Retrieved October 27, 2021, from https://reporter.rit.edu/views/rise-and-grin

Nordgreen, J., Edwards, S. A., Boyle, L. A., Bolhuis, J. E., Veit, C., Sayyari, A., Marin, D. E., Dimitrov, I., Janczak, A. M., & Valros, A. (2020). A Proposed Role for Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in Damaging Behavior in Pigs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 646. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00646

Russo, S. J., Murrough, J. W., Han, M.-H., Charney, D. S., & Nestler, E. J. (2012). Neurobiology of resilience. Nature Neuroscience, 15(11), 1475–1484. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3234

Sudevan, S., Muto, K., Higashitani, N., Hashizume, T., Higashibata, A., Ellwood, R. A., Deane, C. S., Rahman, M., Vanapalli, S. A., Etheridge, T., Szewczyk, N. J., & Higashitani, A. (2021). Loss of Contact in Space Alters Dopamine System in C. elegans (SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3919931). Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3919931

2-Minute Neuroscience: HPA Axis—YouTube. (n.d.). Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAeBKRaNri0

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About the author:

Melanie began attending Harvard in 2020 to complete a Graduate Certificate in Human Behavior with a specialization in Neuropsychology. Boling’s research has examined extreme environments and how they can have a potential negative impact on humans operating in the extreme environment. During her time at Harvard, she has built a mental wellness tool called a psychological field kit. Implementing these tools will allow an individual to thrive in an extreme environment while mitigating negative variables such as abnormal human behavior which can play a role in team degradation.

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part One. // Melanie Boling, Extreme Environments Neuroscientist, Harvard University.

(Melanie Boling, Harvard University, 2021)

Dopamine.

It’s our motivation to dominate our environment. 

Winning. 

Eating. 

Sex. 

Dopamine gives us access to food or partners. 

When dopamine splashes over your brain, it’s a rush of pleasure. 

Good grades. 

Praise. 

Dopamine just feels good.

The Human Brain.

(Greg Dunn Neuro Art- Brain and Neuroscience Fine Art Paintings, n.d.)

Dopamine pleasure differs from here & now pleasure, which is satisfaction. 

A dopamine surge triggered by winning leaves us wanting more. It’s not enough to win. Dopamine wants anticipation. Winning is never enough for dopamine. Pursuit and victory are the surge, and more times than not, the urge for more.  

Giving into the craving that dopamine provides does not guarantee your pleasure; simply, because wanting something versus liking something are two completely separate things. 

Dopamine will only choose one. 

The brain’s substantia niagra (Substantia Niagra, 2021).

This explains WHY human beings are willing to repeatedly put themselves into the extremes; it becomes a loop. 

The brain LOVES loops, and this particular brain loop often times goes unnoticed because it’s become comfortable. Humans gravitate toward what is easy and requires no extra effort. As they say, checking all the boxes; but, at what cost? 

When the human brain is engaged with this repeated cycle; to identify a goal in order to achieve their specific desire, one chemical in the brain takes control above all others, that is dopamine.

Becoming a master of your own homeostasis while mitigating allostatic load are the countermeasures to dopamine overload and the key to dopamine control.

(Neuroscientifically Challenged, 2015)

(Dopamine Pathways, 2013)

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A principal mediator of the impact of stress on the brain and behavior are activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis, which results in widespread hormonal, neurochemical, and physiological alterations.

• Inflammatory stimuli on brain and behavior have consistently reported evidence that inflammatory cytokines affect the basal ganglia and dopamine neurotransmission. 

• Findings have included inflammation-associated reductions in ventral striatal responses to reward, decreased dopamine and dopamine metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid, and decreased availability of striatal dopamine (Felger & Miller, 2012).

• Dopamine response exhibits increased peripheral cytokines and other inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein or autoimmune and/or fibromyalgia response to stressors such as extreme environments (Felger & Miller, 2012).

(Toenders et al, 2021)

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Could mastering Dopamine Control lead to neurogenesis in extreme environments as opposed to neurodegeneration? 

Can personalized countermeasures mitigate potential negative variables within extreme environments?

• Reinforcing our neural pathways over time through repeated exposure therapy would strengthen our own dopamine control, which could make space for wise-mind decisions through self-mastery. Thus, desensitizing our brain from the things which cause a negative neurophysiological response to stressful stimuli (Boling, 2021).

• These physiological emotional-regulation tools will carry over into the everyday life of the practitioner by providing a renewed self-awareness, and the ability to maintain homeostasis, even in the direst of circumstances (Boling, 2021).

Brain Neurogenesis.

(Greg Dunn Neuropsychology Art- Brain and Neuroscience Fine Art Paintings, n.d.)

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Coming Soon:

Dopamine in Extreme Environments: Dopamine Control, Part Two.

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References:

Boling, Melanie. (2021). Melanie Noelani Boling. Imagery Beyond Borders. https://imagerybeyondborders.org

Boling, Melanie (2021). Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies. The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change-research. Harvard Summer School, August 9, 2021.

Castelli, V., Cimini, A., & Ferri, C. (2020). Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: “When You Come Out of the Storm, You Won’t Be the Same Person Who Walked in.” Frontiers in Immunology, 11, 2132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.02132

Cools, R., & Roberts, A. C. (2004). The Role of Dopamine in Cognition: Insights from Neuropsychological Studies in Humans and Non-Human Primates. In S. Otani (Ed.), Prefrontal Cortex: From Synaptic Plasticity to Cognition (pp. 219–243). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-7949-4_10

Dopamine Pathways. (2013). Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University OIST. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.oist.jp/news-center/photos/dopamine-pathways

Felger, J. C., & Miller, A. H. (2012). Cytokine effects on the basal ganglia and dopamine function: The subcortical source of inflammatory malaise. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 33(3), 315—327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.09.003

Felger, J. C. (2017). The Role of Dopamine in Inflammation-Associated Depression: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 31, 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_13

Foo, C., Lozada, A., Aljadeff, J., Li, Y., Wang, J. W., Slesinger, P. A., & Kleinfeld, D. (2021). Reinforcement learning links spontaneous cortical dopamine impulses to reward. Current Biology, 31(18), 4111-4119.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.069

Frontiers | How Breath-Control Can Change Your Life: A Systematic Review on Psycho-Physiological Correlates of Slow Breathing | Human Neuroscience. (n.d.). Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353/full

Garofalo, S., & di Pellegrino, G. (2015). Individual differences in the influence of task-irrelevant Pavlovian cues on human behavior. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 163. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00163

GREG DUNN NEURO ART- Brain and Neuroscience Fine Art Paintings. (n.d.). GREG DUNN NEURO ART. Retrieved December 15, 2021, from https://www.gregadunn.com/

Keltikangas-Järvinen, L., & Salo, J. (2009). Dopamine and serotonin systems modify environmental effects on human behavior: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50(6), 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00785

Lieberman, D., & Long, M. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity--and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. Faculty Bookshelf. https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/books/249

MIND Foundation. (2019, December 22). Ayahuasca’s afterglow: Improved mindfulness & cognitive flexibility | Ashleigh Murphy-Beiner. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WADjcFNbhrg

Murphy-Beiner, A, and K Soar. “Ayahuasca’s ‘Afterglow’: Improved Mindfulness and Cognitive Flexibility in Ayahuasca Drinkers.” Psychopharmacology 237, no. 4 (April 2020): 1161–69.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-019-05445-3.

Peter, A. E., Sandeep, B. V., Rao, B. G., & Kalpana, V. L. (2021). Calming the Storm: Natural Immunosuppressants as Adjuvants to Target the Cytokine Storm in COVID-19. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 11, 2305. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.583777

Plotkin, M. J. (2021). The Amazon: What everyone needs to know. Chapter 8 seminar. Lecture notes The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change- seminar. Harvard Summer School. Delivered 3 August 2021.

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About the author:

Melanie began attending Harvard in 2020 to complete a Graduate Certificate in Human Behavior with a specialization in Neuropsychology. Boling’s research has examined extreme environments and how they can have a potential negative impact on humans operating in the extreme environment. During her time at Harvard, she has built a mental wellness tool called a psychological field kit. Implementing these tools will allow an individual to thrive in an extreme environment while mitigating negative variables such as abnormal human behavior which can play a role in team degradation.

Melanie Boling, Extreme ICE Environments Neuroscientist, Boling Expeditionary Research Group; and Neuropsychology Graduate Student, Harvard University.

Small Shamanic Ceremonies stay true to the culture and provide space for healing U.S. Military Veterans. // Melanie Boling, Harvard University.

Small Shamanic Ceremonies stay true to the culture and provide space for healing. 

Melanie Boling, Extreme (ICE) Environments Behavioural Ecologist and Graduate Student of Neuropsychology, Harvard University in the Peruvian Andes (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021).

The human condition beyond the understanding of the United States Healthcare System and even academia seems to be the path that some United States Military Veterans are on in order to find relief for themselves (Plotkin, 2021).

If the ‘psychedelic renaissance’ continues to proliferate in the United States at the pace it is currently at, this could mean that more avenues of care will be readily available to civilians and veterans, alike.

However, until the United States Government deems these plant medicines legal, people will continue to seek refuge outside of the bubble of the United States or find other ways to be treated by plant medicine that strays from the more traditional methods used by shamans and other facilitators/practitioners of the Amazon Rainforest healing. 

Shamanic Healing is said to “free the soul from the body in order to communicate with the spirit realm” (Plotkin, 2021). These “consultations” with the spirit world through traditional plant medicine healing techniques such as consuming the ayahuasca brew that stimulates the brain and body are often accompanied by a magic song; or in the Shipibo culture “The Icaros”. It is said that consuming ayahuasca makes you dizzy, and the dizziness brings about the magic song. 

“The most important tool used by shamans is the icaro. These traditional songs sung or whistled by shamans before, during, and after an ayahuasca ceremony not only comprise the setting of the experience, they also positively influence the internal landscape of a person’s psyche. While we’re still trying to understand icaros in therapeutic terms, there’s no doubt that these songs play a vital role in the healing aspects of ayahuasca” (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021). 

My scientific theory is that the icaro magic song sung by the shaman directly penetrates the vagus nerve which is the main component of the Human Parasympathetic Nervous System; one of the direct connections that allow your brain and your gut to communicate with one another. The vagus nerve controls mood; immune response; digestion; and even your heart rate. All bodily functions are directly affected by the consumption of ayahuasca and throughout the duration of the ayahuasca ceremony. During the singing of the icaro the vagus nerve is stimulated, creating a more euphoric experience for some, and for others an uptick in purging for the ayahuasca consumer; and in some cases bystanders who only are present for the ceremony itself. This is the power of ayahuasca. 

Traditional Ayahuasca Healing Centers around the world are springing up from India to Costa Rica promising the patients a week or more of services that often come with a hefty price tag.

Plant medicine healing centers or clinics allow shamans; tribal members; and facilitators to continue practicing the traditions of their culture and making a living while doing so (Plotkin, 2021). Thus, preserving and safeguarding a living history allows for more generations to learn the way of the rainforest through plant medicine.

In Sacred Valley of the Andes Mountains just outside of Cusco, Peru, Ayahuasca Healing Centers allow tribes to continue practicing the traditions of their culture and making a living while doing so (Imagery Beyond Borders, January 2021).

These healing centers lower the dependent variable of a tribe from going extinct; or moving further away from traditional ways that are not successfully being passed onto the younger generations (Plotkin, 2021). 

With certain types of emotional trauma, like Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder or C-PTSD and Military Sexual Trauma or MST, small shamanic ceremonies would be the venue or “set and setting” of choice for those suffering from these types of mental illness. Largely, due to the extrinsic factors that play a centralized role in long-term post-traumatic stress or sexual abuse, assault, or trauma.

The idea of holding a small shamanic ceremony would also allow for facilitators and shamans alike to stay true to their culture while holding space to guide these survivors into a journey within themselves.

Nobody’s healing is more important than the other, and keeping a circle small would promote community, while also providing the participants to be on the same level with one another.

With regard to United States Military Veterans, offering the same level of understanding through these profound psychedelic experiences could promote a sense of unity and purpose. Being a part of something bigger than oneself is a core value instilled in those who have served their country in the military forces.

Larger groups at healing retreats can often breed chaos as well as trauma-bonding, which would potentially push certain at-risk veterans to get lost in the shuffle. In turn, this would be repeating the same patterns that of the Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, ultimately potentially providing a short-term band-aid that would later fail the veteran with long-term relief.

Would you like to know more?

Be sure to read back on all of our articles about Entheogen Therapy or Psychedelic Plant Medicine derived from the scientific paper, “Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies”.

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References:

Boling, Melanie (2021). Reported results of Amazonian Entheogens for treatment of Complex-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD); Military Sexual Trauma (MST); and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) among U.S. Military Veterans and the benefits of application through small group indigenous shamanic ceremonies. The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change-research. Harvard Summer School, August 9, 2021.

Plotkin, M. J. (2021). The Amazon: What everyone needs to know. Chapter 8 seminar. Lecture notes The Amazon Rainforest: From Conservation to Climate Change- seminar. Harvard Summer School. Delivered 3 August 2021.

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About the author.

Melanie began attending Harvard in 2020 to complete a Graduate Certificate in Human Behavior with a specialization in Neuropsychology. Boling’s research has examined extreme environments and how they can have a potential negative impact on humans operating in the extreme environment. During her time at Harvard, she has built a mental wellness tool called a psychological field kit. Implementing these tools will allow an individual to thrive in an extreme environment while mitigating negative variables such as abnormal human behavior which can play a role in team degradation.

Melanie Boling, Extreme (ICE) Environments Behavioural Ecologist, Peer Wild; and Graduate Student of Neuropsychology, Harvard University.